8 June, 2021 21:45HRS
As the Cold War was raging, the arms and space race between the United States of America and the Soviet Union continued to escalate further on and on. The weapons development, research and productions of both superpowers was on a record higher pace in 1958. A total of 77 Atomic tests were conducted by the United States Department of Defense in 1958, this was more than any other previous year.
In Operation Hardtack I, 35.6 Megatons of Atomic Blasts were conducted in total. Some fourteen Mark ( Mk ) designated warheads and additional developmental and prototype level warheads were tested in this series of tests.
One of the reasons why there were soo many atomic tests in Operation Hardtack-1 was the temporary ban on all atomic blasts except the nuclear tests that are conducted underground. This moratorium was active from 1958 to 1961. That was the main factor why the United States Department of Defense pumped up the Defense Spending and rushed the maximum number of possible warheads for series of tests in Operation Hardtack I.
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The warheads used in the Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM) and Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBM) were the major focus of lab tests. Additionally, Underwater Tests, Hugh-Altitude Tests, High-Altitude Nuclear Tests, Tests of W-39 Warhead, Human Radiation Experiments and High Altitude multi megaton tests were also conducted. U.S. Department of Defense used the High Altitude Nuclear tests to study and analyze their effectiveness for Anti Ballistic Missile (ABM) Warhead Effects test. In these series of tests the Authorities studied and analyzed High Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) effects produced by every high altitude nuclear blast.
As mentioned above, Operation Hardtack test series was the largest nuclear test series at that time and in this Operation, weapons such as W-45, Mk-43 / B-43 Thermonuclear warhead, TX-46 / W-46 / XW-46 Redstone Warhead, XW-35 ICBM Warhead, Mk-7 Thor Low-Altitude Bombing System, W-31, W-47 Thermonuclear warhead, TX-46 / W-43 Munition, XW-50 / W-50 Warhead, TX-41 / B-41, XW-49 /W49, TX-53 / X53, XW-51 / W51. In this Operation, the number of individual tests and other nuclear blast related researches were record highest of that time.
Among the other individual tests, another part of this operation was to test the biggest and the most powerful American Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Missile warhead were tested as well. Mk-41 Nuclear Bomb was a 25 Megaton Thermonuclear bomb developed by the United States and it was also known as B41 Thermonuclear weapon. The Biggest and the most lethal Nuclear Missile warhead W39 also known as the Mk-39 Nuclear Bomb was a 9 Megaton Nuclear weapon designed to be placed over LGM 25C Titan II Intercontinental Ballistic Missile was also tested in Operation Hardtack-I.
A considerable breakthrough in the nuclear and large weapons development technology was brought by the UCRL testing of the American W47 Thermonuclear warhead that is used on the Polaris Ballistic Missile System. UCRL stands for University of California Radiation Laboratory The learnings from these University of California Radiation Labs tests (UCRL Tests) propelled and heavily influenced the modern nuclear weapons and atomic warhead designs of the United States Nuclear arsenal. The new American missile warheads consist of a High yield confined inside smaller sized warheads.
In these nuclear weapons names and designations the TX, XW, W, B, Mk, EC, S and BA mean the following:
• XW stands for Experimental Warhead (Testing and Development phase).
• W means Warhead (In Production Stage).
• Mk means Mark, a Bomb until 1968.
• B stood for Bomb (after 1968 and replace Mk designation).
• TX means Test Experimental (A Prototype Experimental bomb or warhead).
• EC stands for Emergency Capability warhead prototype design that can be stockpiled for emergency usage as well.
• S is an Artillery shell or Shell.
• BA means Basic Assembly and it is used only for aircraft bombs that were made for the Convair B-58 Hustler Bomber Aircraft's weapons pods. — — —
Operation Hardtack 1 was done by the U.S. to test a total of 35 Nuclear weapon devices in the Pacific Providing Grounds. Operation Hardtack 1 was conducted between 28th April 1958 to 18th August 1958. Operation Hardtack 1 was the largest nuclear test on the pacific at that time considering the total number of nuclear weapons tests In one Operation.
The number of nuclear tests in this Operation was very high and it was scheduled on a narrow time limit of only a bit more than 4 months. Therefore, Bikini Atoll (Previously used for Operation Crossroads as well) was not enough to provide a blast location for every individual test and thus Enewetak Island and Johnston Atoll of the Johnston Island was also used as a nuclear testing site for this operation.
Operation Hardtack 1 was the last operation nuclear testing series in which Atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons was conducted because of a temporary ban on all atomic tests except the nuclear tests that are conducted underground. This moratorium was active from 1958 to 1961. This action was taken because of the lethal and destructive after effects that are the after effects of Atmospheric Nuclear Testing, such as high thermal radiation, Unsafe Radiation levels and lethal presence of radioactive elements in and around the Atomic test sites.
Example: The After effects of the United States' Atomic Testing on Bikini and Enewetak Atolls.
A total of 3 high-altitude tests were conducted as Operation Newsreel in Operation Hardtack 1, These tests were Yucca Test, Teak Test and OrangeTest. These High-Altitude tests of Operation Newsreel were used to analyse the effects of Nuclear Explosion on Electronic devices, technical instruments, radio services and other materials. These high-altitude tests were used for the measurement and analysis of the types of energies that are produced by these high altitude atomic blasts and as well as measure the total energy and fission yield of every high-altitude nuclear blast. Collectively these three High Altitude Tests were called Operation Newsreel.
• Yucca had blast location above the Pacific Providing Grounds (PPG) on 28th April 1958.
• Teak had blast location above the Johnston Island, Johnston Atoll on 1st August 1958.
• Orange had blast location above Johnston Island, Johnston Atoll on 12th August 1958.
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The High-Altitude Nuclear tests of Operation Newsreel produced large amounts of thermal radiation and nuclear radiation in the atmosphere of Earth. It was a serious concern that these explosions can create a hole in Earth's ozone layer. After multiple kinds of research and studies over this concern, it was discovered that the hole or rupture that will be created on Earth's ozone layer will be insignificant and very minute therefore it will not cause any harm. Additionally, observations were made during the Underwater Atomic Tests that during these underwater tests, the energy which is produced in form of thermal radiation and other radiation, produces ozone.
The scientists and research services concluded that even if the ozone layer of the Earth is damaged through these high altitude atomic blasts in Operation Newsreel, the ozone layer damage would be repaired by the ozone that will be produced during the Underwater explosions. However, after Operation Newsreel was finished successfully it was observed that almost no harm is caused to the Earth's Ozone layer by these high-altitude atomic blasts and the ozone layer is intact without any damage or ruptures.
A total of 4 Surface nuclear tests were conducted as part of Operation Hardtack-I. These were Cactus, Koa, Quince and Fig. Surface level tests started by Cactus which was conducted on May 5, 1958 on Enewetak Surface and the last test was Fig that was conducted on August 8, 1958 on the Enewetak surface as well. All of these four surface nuclear tests of the Operation Hardtack 1 were conducted at different locations on the Enewetak Surface.
Surface Atomic tests are more harmful and hazardous for the environment and atmosphere because surface tests spread much more radiation in the atmosphere of the test site or blast crater in comparison to underwater tests or high-altitude atmospheric nuclear tests. These tests produce relatively high radioactive contamination and Radiation exposure, thus convert many atmospheric and surface-level materials into radioactive debris.
The explosions create a large impact on the surface blast crater and spread this radioactive debris from the Earth's Crust to extensive distances in comparison to other forms of atomic tests. This extra formed radioactive material creates much more amounts of radioactive particles which are mixed with the blast cloud (mushroom cloud) and get lifted up in the atmosphere, later these radioactive particles fall down on the earth's surface causing a nuclear fallout with much higher radiation exposure.
Therefore, the Surface Atomic blasts have a higher and more hazardous radiation exposure contamination but these radioactive particles have much shorter atmospheric residence times. When these radioactive clouds reach 20 kilometres above the Earth's surface into the lower stratosphere they cease to rise further high and thus their resistance time stays around 15 years or less.
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• Cactus test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll and was shot on 5th May 1958
• Koa test was conducted at Teiter, Enewetak Surface and was shot on 12th May 1958
• Quince test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll and was shot on 6th August 1958
• Fig had Blast crater on Runit, Enewetak Island and was shot on 18th August 1958
Operation Hardtack had a total of 26 Barge atomic tests, all of these 26 barge tests of this operation were conducted on 5 specific sites. This kind of Nuclear weapons testing in which an Atomic device is mounted on a barge and is then detonated for testing purposes, was first effectively operated in 1954. When Operation Castle was underway at Bikini Atoll, the first barge test was conducted successfully.
The utilization of barges as shot points had a certain good advantage, the development of surface zero areas with no radioactive contamination. In 1954, 2 giant underwater blast craters were formed for Operation Castle, these craters were utilized in form of subsequent surface zeros for the barge tests.
As in such detonations, the nearby land is available for other instruments and technical analysis equipment placements. Barge nuclear detonations are efficient, flexible and quicker as there is no requirement to change instruments' locations and other tech devices can be reused and nearby observation shelters can be reutilized for multiple tests. Barge-based tests don't require delays or long waiting times for the radiological cooldowns that occur by natural decay or through manmade decontamination procedures which are time taking and expensive to perform.
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1. Fir test was conducted at Namu, Bikini Atoll on 11th May 1958.
2. Butternut test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 11th May 1958.
3. Holly test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 20th May 1958.
4. Nutmeg test was conducted at Eninmen, Bikini Atoll on 21st May 1958.
5. Yellowwood test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Lagoon on 26th May 1958.
6. Magnolia test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 26th May 1958.
7. Tobacco test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 30th May 1958.
8. Sycamore test was conducted at Namu, Bikini Atoll on 31st May 1958.
9. Maple test was conducted at Irioj, Bikini Atoll on 10th June 1958.
10. Aspen test was conducted at Namu, Bikini Atoll on 14th June 1958.
11. Walnut test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 14th June 1958.
12. Linden test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 18th June 1958.
13. Redwood test was conducted at Irioj, Bikini Atoll on 27th June 1958.
14. The Elder test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 27th June 1958.
15. Oak test was conducted at Bogallua, Enewetak Atoll on 28th June 1958.
16. Hickory test was conducted at Eninmen, Bikini Atoll on 29th June 1958.
17. Sequoia test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 1st July 1958.
18. Cedar test was conducted at Namu blast crater, Bikini Atoll on 2nd July 1958.
19. Dogwood test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 5th July 1958.
20. Poplar test was conducted at Namu, Bikini Atoll on 12th July 1958.
21. Scaevola test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 14th July 1958.
22. Pisonia test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 17th July 1958.
23. Juniper test was conducted at Eninmen, Bikini Atoll on 22nd July 1958.
24. The Olive test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 22nd July 1958.
25. Pine test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 26th July 1958.
The primary purpose for the United States to conduct Underwater tests was to study the effect of such weapons and their impact on target naval ships and vessels. These sea based tests were done along with the United States Navy and other Maritime services at the Enewetak Atoll because the bottom surface of the sea bed here was stable and smooth in comparison to the ocean floor in other locations.
As the sea floor below the Enewetak was smooth, it was easier to stabilize the navy ships and anchor them to the ocean. Additionally, mines were placed under the sea to check the effect of Underwater Nuclear explosion on sea mines and how can atomic weapons be used to clear mines under the sea. After the Umbrella nuclear Blast test of Operation Hardtack-1 these mines were removed and analyzed for the study of these effects.
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The Underwater Nuclear Explosion Effects:
Underwater Nuclear blasts radiate extreme amounts of heat and nuclear radiation in the water, due to the extreme temperature caused by the blast, the water of the ocean or sea boils up and forms bubbles. These bubbles that are formed by the nuclear explosion, rise up to the surface of the ocean or sea and break it, therefore the water surface loses density. When these bubbles displace the ocean water and thus break the ocean surface, the water from the ocean again fills this ocean cavity caused by bubbles, this spot has the highest radiation levels and radioactive particle concentration and is called the Radioactive Pool.
The amount of bubbles and how much surface area of ocean they break, depends directly on how deep under the ocean the nuclear device was detonated and how much energy and radiation levels this device emitted.
These tests are monitored remotely using multiple advanced sensors and instruments that are placed on nearby land, barge, ships, balloons, buoys or aircrafts to study and analyse these tests through multiple Seismography, Oceanography and hydrography studies by scientists and analysis services.
• Wahoo test was conducted at Pokon, Enewetak Atoll on 16th May 1958.
• Umbrella test was conducted at Pokon, Enewetak Lagoon on 8th June 1958.
Almost all of the Test names were taken from the names of plants and tress that grow in North America.
The Nuclear Weapons Test of Operation Hardtack 1 are –
• Yucca test was conducted at Pacific Providing Grounds on 28th April 1958.
• The Cactus test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 5th May 1958.
• Fir test was conducted at Namu , Bikini Atoll on 11th May 1958.
• Butternut test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 11th May 1958.
• Koa test was conducted at Teiter, Enewetak Atoll on 12th May 1958.
• The Wahoo test was conducted at Pokon, Enewetak Atoll on 16th May 1958.
• Holly test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 20th May 1958.
• Nutmeg test was conducted at Eninmen, Bikini Atoll on 21st May 1958.
• Yellowwood test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Lagoon on 26th May 1958.
• Magnolia test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 26th May 1958.
• Tobacco test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 30th May 1958.
• Sycamore test was conducted at Namu, Bikini Atoll on 31st May 1958.
• Rose test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 2nd June 1958.
• Umbrella test was conducted at Pokon, Enewetak Lagoon on 8th June 1958.
• Maple test was conducted at Irioj, Bikini Atoll on 10th June 1958.
• Aspen test was conducted at Namu, Bikini Atoll on 14th June 1958.
• Walnut test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 14th June 1958.
• Linden test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 18th June 1958.
• Redwood test was conducted at Irioj, Bikini Atoll on 27th June 1958.
• Elder test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 27th June 1958.
• Oak test was conducted at Bogallua, Enewetak Lagoon on 28th June 1958.
• Hickory test was conducted at Eninmen, Bikini Atoll on 29th June 1958.
• Sequoia test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 1st July 1958.
• Cedar test was conducted at Namu blast crater, Bikini Atoll on 2nd July 1958.
• Dogwood test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 5th July 1958.
• Poplar test was conducted at Namu, Bikini Atoll on 12th July 1958.
• Scaevola test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 14th July 1958.
• Pisonia test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 17th July 1958.
• Juniper test was conducted at Eninmen, Bikini Atoll on 22nd July 1958.
• The Olive test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 22nd July 1958.
• Pine test was conducted at Enjebi, Enewetak Atoll on 26th July 1958.
• Piñon (cancelled) test had blast location in the Pacific Proving Grounds in the month of August 1958.
• The Teak test was conducted at Johnston Island, Johnston Atoll on 1st August 1958.
• Quince test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Atoll on 6th August 1958.
• The Orange test was conducted at Johnston Island, Johnston Atoll on 12th August 1958.
• Fig test was conducted at Runit, Enewetak Island on 18th August 1958.
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